Load Specifications
Load data in caliber 7 x 64 Brenneke with .284 | 155gr | TWENTY-NINE ERTP bullet and 94 powders. The key underlying parameters are shown in the table above. The recommended powders for this cartridge and bullet combination are ReloadSwiss RS 60, Alliant Reloder-17 and ReloadSwiss RS 70.
Important Notice: DO NOT go below Minimum Charge or above Maximum Charge. Since we have no control over the equipment and components used, any responsibility and liability for the results achieved is rejected.
Only powders/loads that match the current filter criteria are displayed: max pressure of a load ≤ 90% of max. standardized pressure, fill rate ≥ 80% and propellant combustion ≥ 95%. Use the sliders above the tables to adjust these thresholds.
Charge: Powder weight in grains. Start with the minimum load and work up carefully.
FR (Fill Rate): Case fill as a percentage. Values above 100% mean compressed loads.
MaxP / %: Maximum chamber pressure in bar and as a percentage of the standardized maximum for this caliber.
V(0): Muzzle velocity in feet per second (fps) at the standardized barrel length.
z (Powder Burn): Estimated propellant combustion percentage at bullet exit.
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You can find more information in our FAQ: How can I use the Personalized Load Calculator?
Max Load - Barrel Length: 24"
| Powder | Charge | FR | MaxP | % | V(0) | z |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accurate 2015 | <<locked>> | 82% | 52,214 psi | 87% | 2559 fps | 100% |
| Accurate 2495 | <<locked>> | 88% | 54,230 psi | 90% | 2628 fps | 100% |
| Accurate 2520 | <<locked>> | 82% | 52,388 psi | 87% | 2644 fps | 100% |
| Accurate 2700 | <<locked>> | 88% | 53,229 psi | 88% | 2628 fps | 97.1% |
| Accurate 3100ᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 41,263 psi | 69% | 2533 fps | 96.3% |
| Accurate 4064 | <<locked>> | 90% | 54,418 psi | 90% | 2677 fps | 100% |
| Accurate 4350 | <<locked>> | 98% | 53,896 psi | 90% | 2756 fps | 99.7% |
| ADI AR 2206H | <<locked>> | 84% | 51,416 psi | 85% | 2654 fps | 99.9% |
| ADI AR 2208 | <<locked>> | 90% | 52,257 psi | 87% | 2654 fps | 99.8% |
| ADI Benchmark 8208 | <<locked>> | 84% | 53,766 psi | 89% | 2657 fps | 100% |
| Alliant AR-Comp | <<locked>> | 82% | 51,242 psi | 85% | 2589 fps | 100% |
| Alliant Power Pro 2000-MR | <<locked>> | 88% | 54,215 psi | 90% | 2818 fps | 99.9% |
| Alliant Reloder- TS 15.5 | <<locked>> | 90% | 52,286 psi | 87% | 2677 fps | 100% |
| Alliant Reloder-15 | <<locked>> | 88% | 52,663 psi | 87% | 2694 fps | 99.9% |
| Alliant Reloder-16 | <<locked>> | 98% | 51,692 psi | 86% | 2759 fps | 99.8% |
| Alliant Reloder-17 | <<locked>> | 94% | 52,808 psi | 88% | 2795 fps | 100% |
| Alliant Reloder-23ᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 39,421 psi | 65% | 2562 fps | 99.1% |
| Alliant Reloder-26ᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 44,048 psi | 73% | 2717 fps | 98.5% |
| Baschieri & Pellagri 107 | <<locked>> | 86% | 54,389 psi | 90% | 2720 fps | 99.8% |
| Bofors RP3 | <<locked>> | 90% | 52,692 psi | 88% | 2690 fps | 100% |
| Bofors RP7 | <<locked>> | 94% | 52,765 psi | 88% | 2661 fps | 97.3% |
| Hodgdon Benchmark | <<locked>> | 82% | 52,243 psi | 87% | 2595 fps | 100% |
| Hodgdon BL-C2 | <<locked>> | 84% | 52,997 psi | 88% | 2687 fps | 100% |
| Hodgdon H380 | <<locked>> | 90% | 53,679 psi | 89% | 2703 fps | 99.4% |
| Hodgdon H414 | <<locked>> | 96% | 53,026 psi | 88% | 2749 fps | 98% |
| Hodgdon H4350 | <<locked>> | 94% | 53,925 psi | 90% | 2717 fps | 96.8% |
| Hodgdon H4895 | <<locked>> | 84% | 51,967 psi | 86% | 2667 fps | 100% |
| Hodgdon Hybrid 100Vᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 51,517 psi | 86% | 2690 fps | 100% |
| Hodgdon LEVERevolution | <<locked>> | 86% | 50,908 psi | 85% | 2694 fps | 100% |
| Hodgdon Superformance | <<locked>> | 96% | 53,447 psi | 89% | 2785 fps | 97.7% |
| Hodgdon TrailBossᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 35,491 psi | 59% | 1634 fps | 100% |
| Hodgdon VARGET | <<locked>> | 86% | 52,924 psi | 88% | 2664 fps | 100% |
| IMR 3031 | <<locked>> | 84% | 51,895 psi | 86% | 2648 fps | 100% |
| IMR 4064 | <<locked>> | 88% | 51,982 psi | 86% | 2641 fps | 99.8% |
| IMR 4166 Enduron | <<locked>> | 86% | 51,866 psi | 86% | 2618 fps | 97.6% |
| IMR 4350 | <<locked>> | 98% | 53,026 psi | 88% | 2687 fps | 97.3% |
| IMR 4451 Enduron | <<locked>> | 92% | 51,663 psi | 86% | 2644 fps | 97.5% |
| IMR 4831ᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 54,201 psi | 90% | 2746 fps | 99.8% |
| IMR 4895 | <<locked>> | 88% | 54,012 psi | 90% | 2723 fps | 100% |
| IMR 8208 XBR | <<locked>> | 84% | 53,766 psi | 89% | 2657 fps | 100% |
| Lovex D073.6 | <<locked>> | 86% | 54,172 psi | 90% | 2677 fps | 100% |
| Lovex S060 | <<locked>> | 86% | 54,172 psi | 90% | 2631 fps | 100% |
| Lovex S062 | <<locked>> | 88% | 51,822 psi | 86% | 2638 fps | 100% |
| Lovex S065 | <<locked>> | 96% | 54,244 psi | 90% | 2690 fps | 99% |
| Lovex S070 | <<locked>> | 96% | 51,764 psi | 86% | 2671 fps | 97.9% |
| Norma 201 | <<locked>> | 86% | 53,316 psi | 89% | 2651 fps | 100% |
| Norma 202 | <<locked>> | 86% | 54,056 psi | 90% | 2654 fps | 100% |
| Norma 203B | <<locked>> | 88% | 51,880 psi | 86% | 2680 fps | 99.9% |
| Norma 204 | <<locked>> | 98% | 53,693 psi | 89% | 2736 fps | 96.2% |
| Norma URP | <<locked>> | 98% | 53,113 psi | 88% | 2746 fps | 99.6% |
| Ramshot Big Game | <<locked>> | 88% | 52,431 psi | 87% | 2710 fps | 99.9% |
| Ramshot Hunter | <<locked>> | 98% | 51,866 psi | 86% | 2743 fps | 98.5% |
| Ramshot TAC | <<locked>> | 84% | 53,780 psi | 89% | 2674 fps | 99.1% |
| Ramshot Wild Boar | <<locked>> | 84% | 53,417 psi | 89% | 2690 fps | 100% |
| Ramshot X-Terminator | <<locked>> | 82% | 54,360 psi | 90% | 2657 fps | 100% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 14ᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 36,201 psi | 60% | 1677 fps | 100% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 50 | <<locked>> | 90% | 53,896 psi | 90% | 2687 fps | 98.5% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 52 | <<locked>> | 86% | 52,953 psi | 88% | 2756 fps | 99.9% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 60 | <<locked>> | 92% | 52,359 psi | 87% | 2789 fps | 100% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 62 | <<locked>> | 98% | 53,447 psi | 89% | 2776 fps | 99.6% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 70 | <<locked>> | 98% | 52,939 psi | 88% | 2802 fps | 99.4% |
| Rottweil R 901 | <<locked>> | 82% | 51,503 psi | 86% | 2589 fps | 100% |
| Rottweil R 902 | <<locked>> | 88% | 53,969 psi | 90% | 2651 fps | 100% |
| Rottweil R 903 | <<locked>> | 92% | 52,533 psi | 87% | 2684 fps | 100% |
| Rottweil R 907 | <<locked>> | 94% | 52,765 psi | 88% | 2661 fps | 97.3% |
| Shooters World Long Rifle | <<locked>> | 96% | 54,244 psi | 90% | 2690 fps | 99% |
| Shooters World Match Rifle | <<locked>> | 86% | 54,172 psi | 90% | 2677 fps | 100% |
| Shooters World Precision | <<locked>> | 88% | 51,822 psi | 86% | 2638 fps | 100% |
| Shooters World SW4350 | <<locked>> | 96% | 51,764 psi | 86% | 2671 fps | 97.9% |
| SNPE Vectan SP 11 | <<locked>> | 92% | 54,244 psi | 90% | 2743 fps | 100% |
| SNPE Vectan SP 7 | <<locked>> | 84% | 52,243 psi | 87% | 2654 fps | 99.2% |
| SNPE Vectan SP 9 | <<locked>> | 86% | 52,910 psi | 88% | 2674 fps | 100% |
| SNPE Vectan Tubal 3000 | <<locked>> | 84% | 51,648 psi | 86% | 2546 fps | 100% |
| SNPE Vectan Tubal 5000 | <<locked>> | 90% | 51,793 psi | 86% | 2549 fps | 100% |
| SNPE Vectan Tubal 7000 | <<locked>> | 96% | 54,404 psi | 90% | 2641 fps | 98% |
| Somchem S335 | <<locked>> | 86% | 54,186 psi | 90% | 2589 fps | 100% |
| Somchem S341 | <<locked>> | 84% | 51,764 psi | 86% | 2644 fps | 99.9% |
| Somchem S355 | <<locked>> | 92% | 52,910 psi | 88% | 2680 fps | 100% |
| Somchem S365ᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 50,778 psi | 84% | 2746 fps | 100% |
| Somchem S385ᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 47,297 psi | 79% | 2631 fps | 96.1% |
| Vihtavuori N133 | <<locked>> | 84% | 51,953 psi | 86% | 2533 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N135 | <<locked>> | 88% | 53,780 psi | 89% | 2615 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N140 | <<locked>> | 86% | 51,169 psi | 85% | 2589 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N150 | <<locked>> | 94% | 54,331 psi | 90% | 2661 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N160 | <<locked>> | 96% | 52,011 psi | 86% | 2690 fps | 99.5% |
| Vihtavuori N530 | <<locked>> | 84% | 53,998 psi | 90% | 2654 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N540 | <<locked>> | 88% | 52,605 psi | 87% | 2631 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N550 | <<locked>> | 98% | 54,317 psi | 90% | 2743 fps | 99.6% |
| Vihtavuori N555ᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 43,192 psi | 72% | 2631 fps | 99% |
| Winchester 6.5 StaBALL | <<locked>> | 96% | 52,141 psi | 87% | 2671 fps | 100% |
| Winchester 748 | <<locked>> | 84% | 53,954 psi | 90% | 2700 fps | 100% |
| Winchester 760 | <<locked>> | 96% | 53,345 psi | 89% | 2756 fps | 98% |
| Winchester StaBALL HDᴾ | <<locked>> | 100% | 35,302 psi | 59% | 2569 fps | 99.1% |
| Winchester StaBALL Match | <<locked>> | 86% | 52,968 psi | 88% | 2684 fps | 100% |
Recommended = one of the top powders for this cartridge and bullet combination.
Start Load - Barrel Length: 24"
| Powder | Charge | FR | MaxP | % | V(0) | z |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accurate 2015 | <<locked>> | 80% | 49,255 psi | 82% | 2516 fps | 100% |
| Accurate 2495 | <<locked>> | 80% | 41,785 psi | 69% | 2448 fps | 100% |
| Accurate 2520 | <<locked>> | 80% | 48,762 psi | 81% | 2592 fps | 100% |
| Accurate 2700 | <<locked>> | 84% | 46,905 psi | 78% | 2526 fps | 95.7% |
| Accurate 3100 | <<locked>> | 98% | 38,508 psi | 64% | 2480 fps | 95.5% |
| Accurate 4064 | <<locked>> | 80% | 39,537 psi | 66% | 2444 fps | 100% |
| Accurate 4350 | <<locked>> | 84% | 33,359 psi | 55% | 2385 fps | 95.7% |
| ADI AR 2206H | <<locked>> | 80% | 45,310 psi | 75% | 2556 fps | 99.5% |
| ADI AR 2208 | <<locked>> | 80% | 38,435 psi | 64% | 2411 fps | 97.8% |
| ADI Benchmark 8208 | <<locked>> | 80% | 47,398 psi | 79% | 2559 fps | 100% |
| Alliant AR-Comp | <<locked>> | 80% | 47,834 psi | 79% | 2543 fps | 100% |
| Alliant Power Pro 2000-MR | <<locked>> | 80% | 41,278 psi | 69% | 2589 fps | 98.4% |
| Alliant Reloder- TS 15.5 | <<locked>> | 80% | 38,319 psi | 64% | 2438 fps | 99% |
| Alliant Reloder-15 | <<locked>> | 80% | 41,031 psi | 68% | 2497 fps | 98.5% |
| Alliant Reloder-16 | <<locked>> | 84% | 33,692 psi | 56% | 2395 fps | 95.8% |
| Alliant Reloder-17 | 41.4 gr | 80% | 32,895 psi | 55% | 2405 fps | 97.4% |
| Alliant Reloder-23 | <<locked>> | 90% | 29,124 psi | 48% | 2306 fps | 95.5% |
| Alliant Reloder-26 | <<locked>> | 94% | 35,694 psi | 59% | 2533 fps | 95.8% |
| Baschieri & Pellagri 107 | <<locked>> | 80% | 44,469 psi | 74% | 2559 fps | 98.7% |
| Bofors RP3 | <<locked>> | 80% | 37,811 psi | 63% | 2438 fps | 99% |
| Bofors RP7 | <<locked>> | 88% | 43,859 psi | 73% | 2510 fps | 95.2% |
| Hodgdon Benchmark | <<locked>> | 80% | 49,066 psi | 82% | 2546 fps | 100% |
| Hodgdon BL-C2 | <<locked>> | 80% | 46,340 psi | 77% | 2585 fps | 100% |
| Hodgdon H380 | <<locked>> | 80% | 38,812 psi | 64% | 2444 fps | 96.9% |
| Hodgdon H414 | <<locked>> | 88% | 40,872 psi | 68% | 2539 fps | 95.1% |
| Hodgdon H4350 | <<locked>> | 90% | 47,485 psi | 79% | 2612 fps | 95.4% |
| Hodgdon H4895 | <<locked>> | 80% | 45,730 psi | 76% | 2566 fps | 99.7% |
| Hodgdon Hybrid 100V | <<locked>> | 82% | 29,066 psi | 48% | 2251 fps | 95.8% |
| Hodgdon LEVERevolution | <<locked>> | 80% | 41,858 psi | 70% | 2543 fps | 99.6% |
| Hodgdon Superformance | <<locked>> | 90% | 43,497 psi | 72% | 2608 fps | 95.2% |
| Hodgdon TrailBoss | <<locked>> | 80% | 26,484 psi | 44% | 1460 fps | 100% |
| Hodgdon VARGET | <<locked>> | 80% | 43,932 psi | 73% | 2520 fps | 99.6% |
| IMR 3031 | <<locked>> | 80% | 45,585 psi | 76% | 2556 fps | 100% |
| IMR 4064 | <<locked>> | 80% | 40,364 psi | 67% | 2441 fps | 98.4% |
| IMR 4166 Enduron | <<locked>> | 80% | 42,989 psi | 71% | 2464 fps | 95.6% |
| IMR 4350 | <<locked>> | 92% | 44,164 psi | 73% | 2539 fps | 95.3% |
| IMR 4451 Enduron | <<locked>> | 86% | 42,830 psi | 71% | 2490 fps | 95.4% |
| IMR 4831 | <<locked>> | 84% | 32,329 psi | 54% | 2346 fps | 95.4% |
| IMR 4895 | <<locked>> | 80% | 42,018 psi | 70% | 2523 fps | 99.1% |
| IMR 8208 XBR | <<locked>> | 80% | 47,398 psi | 79% | 2559 fps | 100% |
| Lovex D073.6 | <<locked>> | 80% | 44,498 psi | 74% | 2536 fps | 100% |
| Lovex S060 | <<locked>> | 80% | 45,179 psi | 75% | 2490 fps | 99.5% |
| Lovex S062 | <<locked>> | 80% | 40,379 psi | 67% | 2448 fps | 99.5% |
| Lovex S065 | <<locked>> | 84% | 37,652 psi | 63% | 2398 fps | 95.6% |
| Lovex S070 | <<locked>> | 88% | 40,422 psi | 67% | 2470 fps | 95.2% |
| Norma 201 | <<locked>> | 80% | 44,295 psi | 74% | 2507 fps | 99.9% |
| Norma 202 | <<locked>> | 80% | 44,860 psi | 75% | 2516 fps | 100% |
| Norma 203B | <<locked>> | 80% | 40,393 psi | 67% | 2484 fps | 98.8% |
| Norma 204 | <<locked>> | 96% | 49,995 psi | 83% | 2677 fps | 95.3% |
| Norma URP | <<locked>> | 84% | 33,634 psi | 56% | 2385 fps | 95.6% |
| Ramshot Big Game | <<locked>> | 80% | 39,943 psi | 66% | 2497 fps | 98.6% |
| Ramshot Hunter | <<locked>> | 90% | 39,958 psi | 66% | 2526 fps | 95.8% |
| Ramshot TAC | <<locked>> | 80% | 47,239 psi | 78% | 2569 fps | 98.1% |
| Ramshot Wild Boar | <<locked>> | 80% | 46,775 psi | 78% | 2589 fps | 99.6% |
| Ramshot X-Terminator | <<locked>> | 80% | 51,169 psi | 85% | 2608 fps | 99.8% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 14 | <<locked>> | 80% | 26,963 psi | 45% | 1496 fps | 100% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 50 | <<locked>> | 80% | 39,088 psi | 65% | 2425 fps | 95.1% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 52 | <<locked>> | 80% | 43,294 psi | 72% | 2595 fps | 98.9% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 60 | 41.4 gr | 80% | 35,012 psi | 58% | 2470 fps | 99.7% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 62 | <<locked>> | 84% | 33,112 psi | 55% | 2398 fps | 95.1% |
| ReloadSwiss RS 70 | 45.2 gr | 86% | 35,418 psi | 59% | 2454 fps | 95% |
| Rottweil R 901 | <<locked>> | 80% | 48,341 psi | 80% | 2543 fps | 100% |
| Rottweil R 902 | <<locked>> | 80% | 42,308 psi | 70% | 2464 fps | 99.7% |
| Rottweil R 903 | <<locked>> | 80% | 35,723 psi | 59% | 2388 fps | 98.4% |
| Rottweil R 907 | <<locked>> | 88% | 43,859 psi | 73% | 2510 fps | 95.2% |
| Shooters World Long Rifle | <<locked>> | 84% | 37,652 psi | 63% | 2398 fps | 95.6% |
| Shooters World Match Rifle | <<locked>> | 80% | 44,498 psi | 74% | 2536 fps | 100% |
| Shooters World Precision | <<locked>> | 80% | 40,379 psi | 67% | 2448 fps | 99.5% |
| Shooters World SW4350 | <<locked>> | 88% | 40,422 psi | 67% | 2470 fps | 95.2% |
| SNPE Vectan SP 11 | <<locked>> | 80% | 36,593 psi | 61% | 2434 fps | 97.9% |
| SNPE Vectan SP 7 | <<locked>> | 80% | 45,687 psi | 76% | 2546 fps | 98.3% |
| SNPE Vectan SP 9 | <<locked>> | 80% | 43,801 psi | 73% | 2526 fps | 99.3% |
| SNPE Vectan Tubal 3000 | <<locked>> | 80% | 45,585 psi | 76% | 2457 fps | 100% |
| SNPE Vectan Tubal 5000 | <<locked>> | 80% | 37,942 psi | 63% | 2333 fps | 100% |
| SNPE Vectan Tubal 7000 | <<locked>> | 88% | 41,901 psi | 70% | 2441 fps | 95.4% |
| Somchem S335 | <<locked>> | 80% | 45,194 psi | 75% | 2461 fps | 100% |
| Somchem S341 | <<locked>> | 80% | 45,281 psi | 75% | 2543 fps | 99.4% |
| Somchem S355 | <<locked>> | 80% | 36,390 psi | 60% | 2392 fps | 98.4% |
| Somchem S365 | <<locked>> | 80% | 26,527 psi | 44% | 2234 fps | 96.2% |
| Somchem S385 | <<locked>> | 98% | 44,251 psi | 74% | 2579 fps | 95.3% |
| Vihtavuori N133 | <<locked>> | 80% | 45,905 psi | 76% | 2448 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N135 | <<locked>> | 80% | 41,684 psi | 69% | 2441 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N140 | <<locked>> | 80% | 42,438 psi | 71% | 2454 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N150 | <<locked>> | 80% | 34,766 psi | 58% | 2333 fps | 99% |
| Vihtavuori N160 | <<locked>> | 82% | 32,996 psi | 55% | 2336 fps | 95.3% |
| Vihtavuori N530 | <<locked>> | 80% | 47,413 psi | 79% | 2556 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N540 | <<locked>> | 80% | 40,886 psi | 68% | 2448 fps | 100% |
| Vihtavuori N550 | <<locked>> | 84% | 34,650 psi | 58% | 2388 fps | 95.7% |
| Vihtavuori N555 | <<locked>> | 90% | 31,256 psi | 52% | 2379 fps | 95.6% |
| Winchester 6.5 StaBALL | <<locked>> | 80% | 30,690 psi | 51% | 2264 fps | 96.7% |
| Winchester 748 | <<locked>> | 80% | 47,108 psi | 78% | 2598 fps | 100% |
| Winchester 760 | <<locked>> | 88% | 40,872 psi | 68% | 2539 fps | 95.1% |
| Winchester StaBALL HD | <<locked>> | 94% | 29,080 psi | 48% | 2379 fps | 96% |
| Winchester StaBALL Match | <<locked>> | 80% | 43,149 psi | 72% | 2530 fps | 99.5% |
Recommended = one of the top powders for this cartridge and bullet combination.
ᴾ possible press load - work up slowly to this load while watching for signs of excessive pressure.
This overview compares 94 powders for 7 x 64 Brenneke loaded with the .284 | 155gr | TWENTY-NINE ERTP. Alliant Power Pro 2000-MR delivers the highest muzzle velocity at 2,818 fps; across all powders the maximum-charge window runs from 1,634 fps to 2,818 fps. Accurate 3100 gives the best case fill at 100 %, and 94 of the 94 powders fall inside the usable 80–100 % fill window.
Relative to the caliber's maximum pressure (415 MPa), the top charges use 59–90 %, leaving at least 10 % headroom. The 155.0 gr projectile in 0.284" calls for a 1:8.5 twist; slower twists will usually not stabilise this weight. Accurate 3100, Alliant Reloder-23, Alliant Reloder-26 reach 100 % fill or more at maximum charge, so these are compressed loads: they need a long drop tube to seat cleanly and react sensitively to the case capacity of your own brass lot. ReloadSwiss RS 60, Alliant Reloder-17, ReloadSwiss RS 70 rank at the top here: for 7 x 64 Brenneke with the .284 | 155gr | TWENTY-NINE ERTP they combine a high case fill with complete burn and sit in the upper velocity band. Always begin at the start load and work up in small increments while checking case and primer for pressure signs.